The Meaning of Mecca

The hajj, the fifth pillar of Islam, is a religious duty to be performed once in a lifetime by all Muslims who are able. The Prophet Muhammad set out the rituals of hajj when he led what became known as the Farewell Hajj in 10 AH / 632AD. This set the seal on Muhammad's career as the founder of a religion and the leader of a political entity based on that religion. The convergence of the Prophet with the politician infuses the hajj with political, as well as religious, significance. For the caliphs who led the Islamic community after Muhammad's death, leadership of the hajj became a position of enormous political relevance as it presented them with an unrivalled opportunity to proclaim their pious credentials and reinforce their political legitimacy. Exhaustively researched, The Meaning of Mecca is the first study to analyse the leadership of the hajj in the formative and medieval periods and to assess the political subtext of Islam's most high-profile religious ritual.

ME McMillan was awarded a PhD in Islamic History at the University of St Andrews and has worked as a translator for the UN Security Council.

Contents Acknowledgements 13 Introduction: The Politics of Pilgrimage 15 1. The Prophet's precedent: the farewell hajj of 10/632 The Prophet and The Pilgrimage 19 The Rituals of the hajj 21 The Meaning of Mecca for the Muslim Community 25 2. Following in the Prophet's footsteps: the era of the rightly guided caliphs Table 1 29 Abu Bakr: Leadership of the hajj and the Nature of Authority in Islam 32 'Umar and 'Uthman: The hajj as a Channel of Communication 35 'Ali b. Abi talib: All Roads Do Not Lead to Mecca 39 The hajj as a Platform for Rebellion 41 Conspicuous by Their Absence: Who Did Not Lead the hajj 43 3. Mu'awiyah B. Abi Sufyan: A new regime and a new hajj policy Table 2 45 Mu'awiyah and Leadership of the hajj 47 Political Choreography: The hajj of the Caliph's Successor Son 51 The Ruling Family and Leadership of the hajj 54 Leading the hajj by Proxy: The Governorship of Medina and the Politics of Martyrdom 56 Conspicuous by Their Absence: Who Did Not Lead the hajj 60 4. The Caliphate in transition: The hajj as a barometer of political change Table 3 63 Yazid and Leadership of the hajj: The haram as an Ideological Battleground 65 Ibn al-Zubayr: Rebel or Ruler? 70 Alternative Uses of the hajj: The haram as the Centre of an Information Network 73 The hajj of 68 AH: A Platform for Rebellion 75 5. The return of the umayyads and the reintroduction of the sufyanid hajj policy Table 4 77 A Tale of Two Holy Cities: Mecca, Jerusalem and the hajj 79 The hajj of 72 AH: A Barometer of Political Change 81 Restoring Precedent: The Caliph's Victory hajj of 75 AH 84 The Issue of Succession: The hajj Seasons of 78 AH and 81 AH 86 The Governors of Medina and Leadership of the hajj: The Sufyanid Model Revisited 89 6. A house dividing: the successor sons of 'Abd al-Malik: al-Walid and Sulayman Table 5 95 Power and Patronage: The Caliphal hajj of 91 AH 97 Following in His Predecessors' Footsteps: Al-Walid's Succession Policy and Leadership of the hajj 100 Following in His Predecessors' Footsteps II : Al-Walid's Governors of Medina and Leadership of the hajj 102 The Caliphal Pilgrimage of 97 AH: hajj and Jihad in the Same Year 106 The Politics of Protest: Sulayman's Governors of the Holy Cities and Leadership of the hajj 110 7. 'Umar ii and Yazid Ii: a different approach to the hajj Table 6 115 'Umar II : A hajj Policy Based in the hijaz 116 Yazid II : Another hajj Policy Based in the hijaz 119 'Umar II , Yazid II and Leadership of the hajj: Some Unanswered Questions 123 8. The last of a line: Hisham b. 'Abd al-Malik Table 7 127 Restoring Precedent: The Caliphal hajj of 106 AH 130 The hajj of the Heir Apparent in 116 AH 134 contents 11 The hajj of the Would-Be Heir Apparent in 119 AH 136 Keeping it in the Family: Hisham's Governors of the Holy Cities and Leadership of the hajj 139 All Roads Lead to Mecca: The hajj as a Platform for Rebellion 141 9. The third and final generation: al-Walid ii to Marwan Ii Table 8 143 The hajj of 125 AH: The Politics of Reprisal Revisited 145 The hajj of 126 AH: The Search for Umayyad Unity 149 The Ongoing Search for Umayyad Unity: The hajj Seasons of 127 AH and 128 AH 153 The hajj Seasons 129 AH to 131 AH: Power Slips Away 155 10. summary: The Meaning of Mecca Power and Patronage at the Pilgrimage 161 Governing Islam's First Cities and Leadership of the hajj 162 The Politics of Protest: Alternative Uses of the hajj 164 The Politics of Pilgrimage 165 Appendix A: The Sources and Their Challenges 167 Appendix B: Further Reading on the hajj and the Umayyads 177 Bibliography 183 Index 191